EXperimental Paradigm to Investigate Expectation Change in Depression 4 (EXPECD4)

Worse Than Expected - Differences Between Healthy and Depressed People in Processing Unexpectedly Negative Information

Research has shown that people with depressive symptoms maintain negative expectations even if they have positive experiences that contradict their expectations. Healthy people, however, change their expectations after unexpected positive experiences. In this experimental study, it will now be examined whether there are also differences between healthy people and people with depressive symptoms in dealing with unexpected negative experiences.

Research has already shown that people with depressive symptoms continue to hold on to negative expectations even if they have positive experiences that contradict their expectations. By contrast, healthy people change their expectations after unexpectedly positive experiences. In this experimental study, the authors will now examine whether there are also differences between healthy people and people with depressive symptoms in processing unexpectedly negative experiences. It is hypothesized that people with depressive symptoms change their expectations in a negative direction after unexpectedly negative experiences, while healthy people continue to hold on to an optimistic view.

Participants are assigned to one of two experimental groups in parallel for the duration of the study

The investigator randomly assigns participants to one of the experimental conditions. Participants are not aware which experimental condition they are allocated to.

The participants in this group receive manipulated feedback indicating that their performance was very good in the test they had previously worked on. This feedback is intended to confirm the previously induced positive expectations of their own performance.

The participants in this group receive manipulated feedback indicating that their performance was below average in the test they had previously worked on. This feedback is intended to negatively disconfirm the previously induced positive expectations of their own performance.

Participants receive manipulated feedback indicating that their performance was above average in the test they had previously worked on. This feedback is intended to confirm the previously induced positive expectations of their own performance.

Participants receive manipulated feedback indicating that their performance was below average in the test they had previously worked on. This feedback is intended to negatively disconfirm the previously induced positive expectations of their own performance.

Changes from baseline to postassessment in generalized performance expectations. Each item is scored from 1 to 7 (1 = very negative expectations, 7 = very positive expectations), yielding a total score between 2 and 14. Higher total scores reflect more positive expectations.

Changes from baseline to postassessment in task-specific performance expectations. Each item is scored from 1 to 7 (1 = very negative expectations, 7 = very positive expectations), yielding a total score between 2 and 14. Higher total scores reflect more positive expectations.

Engagement in cognitive immunization strategies after receiving performance feedback. Each item is scored from 1 to 7 (1 = no cognitive immunization, 7 = great engagement in cognitive immunization), yielding a total score between 5 and 35. Higher total scores reflect a greater engagement in cognitive immunization strategies.

Inclusion Criteria (clinical sample): diagnosis of major depression at least 18 years old sufficient German language skills Exclusion Criteria (clinical sample): participation in previous studies on changes in expectations Inclusion Criteria (healthy sample): at least 18 years old sufficient German language skills Exclusion Criteria (clinical sample): participation in previous studies on changes in expectations current diagnosis of any mental disorder diagnosis of major depression in the past currently receiving psychotherapeutic treatment