Maximum voluntary isometric contraction - Knee extension
For the lower body strength, participants will be assessed on a Biodex System 3 Pro isokinetic dynamometer (Biodex Medical Systems, Shirley, NY). The participants will remain seated with the belts positioned on the thorax, abdomen, thigh, and above the knee on the side that is being evaluated to limit the knee movement.
Each testing session will begin with a dynamic warm-up, consisting of 5min of submaximal cycle-ergometry set at 25 W followed by a 5 min of resting before starting the testing protocol. First, a MVIC 5-s voluntary knee extension (knee at 70o for the extension). Verbal encouragement and audible feedback from the dynamometer software will be provided to each participant.
Maximum voluntary isometric contraction - Knee flexion
After the maximum voluntary isometric contraction for knee extension, participants will be asked to perform a MVIC 5-s voluntary knee flexion (30o for the flexion). This test will be performed with 3min of pause after the MVIC of knee extension.
Rate of torque development (RTD) for knee extension and flexion
In both MVIC for knee extension and flexion, the participants will be instructed to avoid any countermovement prior to test and will be asked to exert their maximum force as fast and hard as possible, to obtain both maximal torque and rate of torque development (RTD). Verbal encouragement and audible feedback from the dynamometer software will be provided to each participant.
5 submaximal isometric repetitions of knee extension
5 submaximal isometric repetitions will me measuredfrom MVIC of baseline and MVIC of that day: 1) 30s at 20% of MVIC; 2) 30s at 40% of MVIC; 3) 10s at 60% of MVIC; 4) 10s at 80% of MVIC; 5) 10s at 100% of MVIC. Between repetitions a pause of 1 min will be performed between repetitions while a pause of 3 min will be performed between sets.
Fatigue task
Last, and after a pause of 5 min, participants will perform an isometric contraction at 40% of MVIC (measured on the day) until to exhaustion. Exhaustion will be considered if a decrease of more than 10% of MVIC for more than 10s is observed.
EMG signals - Root mean square
During the legs' strength assessment, EMG signals will be recorded (EMG Delsys Trigno Avanti, Delsys Incorporated, USA) from the vastus lateralis (VL), rectus femoris (RF), vastus medialis (VM), and biceps femoris (BF) muscles in accordance with the guidelines of the Surface EMG for the Non-invasive Assessment of Muscles (SENIAM). The electrodes will be placed before the 5 min of resting after the dynamic warm-up. EMG signals from each muscle will be pre-amplified (gain 1000), band-pass filtered (20-450 Hz), and A/D converted at 1kHz (MP100, BIOPAC Systems Inc., Goleta, CA). AcqKnowledge 4.3.1 software will be used for data collection and processing (BIOPAC Systems Inc., Goleta, CA).
EMG signals - Mean power frequency
During the legs' strength assessment, EMG signals will be recorded (EMG Delsys Trigno Avanti, Delsys Incorporated, USA) from the vastus lateralis (VL), rectus femoris (RF), vastus medialis (VM), and biceps femoris (BF) muscles in accordance with the guidelines of the Surface EMG for the Non-invasive Assessment of Muscles (SENIAM). The electrodes will be placed before the 5 min of resting after the dynamic warm-up. EMG signals from each muscle will be pre-amplified (gain 1000), band-pass filtered (20-450 Hz), and A/D converted at 1kHz (MP100, BIOPAC Systems Inc., Goleta, CA). AcqKnowledge 4.3.1 software will be used for data collection and processing (BIOPAC Systems Inc., Goleta, CA).
Handgrip strength
The handgrip strength test measures maximum voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) of the hand and forearm muscles. Handgrip will be performed using a portable hand dynamometer (TSD121C; Biopac Systems, Goleta, CA, USA). Participants will be assessed on both hands alternately, in a standing position. Prior to the test, the grip dynamometer will be adjusted to the size of the hand of each subject. Handgrip strength assessment will be conducted with the subject standing up with the arms in a neutral position (halfway between supine and pronation position). Each participant will be assessed on both hands alternately until reaching 3 attempts for each hand. In each attempt, the subject will exert the maximal grip strength on the handgrip dynamometer with the assessed hand for 5s. After each attempt, there will be a resting period of 60s that will be used both for recovery and for changing the handgrip dynamometer to the opposite hand.
Food records
A trained dietitian will calculate the athlete's habitual total water intake (i.e., the sum of the water present in beverages and the water in foods) based on a 3 non-consecutive days food record. Before filling the food records, a registered dietitian will provide written instructions using specific guidelines, pictures of portion sizes, and examples of common errors in recording dietary intake. The Portuguese Food guide will be used for the estimation of ingested portions. For the conversion of the contribution of water from food, the software package Food Processor Plus® (ESHA Research, USA) will be used by a registered dietitian.
Cardiorespiratory Fitness Test
A trained exercise physiologist will perform a maximal cardiorespiratory fitness test using an incremental test on variable speed and incline treadmill (Pulsar 3p, HP Cosmos, Nussdorf-Traunstein, Germany).The participants will perform the incremental test until exhaustion to determine their VO2max and the VT. The test will start with a 5-min seated period followed by a 1-min warm-up at 8kmh-1 with consecutive increases of 1kmh-1 per minute until exhaustion. Recovery consisted of a 3 min walk at 2.4kmh-1 speed and a grade of 2.5%.
Expired gas measurements will be taken using a breath-by-breath metabolic cart (QUARK RMR, version 9.1, Cosmed, Rome, Italy). The VO2 and heart rate data, obtained throughout the graded exercise test, will be displayed in 20-s averages. The highest VO2 attained at the end of the test will be accepted as VO2max if a plateau in VO2 with an increase in treadmill speed was observed.
Plasma osmolality
Plasma osmolality (mOsm/kg) will be assessed by using the osmometer (Mod OSMO1, Advanced Instruments, Canada). Blood samples will be drawn from an antecubital vein via single venepuncture and will be collected in serum and plasma EDTA tubes. All blood samples will be centrifuged at 5000 rpm for 15 min at -4°C. Serum osmolality will be measured immediately following centrifugation.
Urine osmolality
Urine osmolality (mOsm/kg) will be assessed by using the osmometer (Mod OSMO1, Advanced Instruments, Canada). Urine osmolality (Uosm) is a measure of the number of dissolved particles per unit of water in urine. The osmolality of the urine sample reflects the self-regulating activity of renal concentration or dilution mechanisms during a 24-h period. Participants will receive a container for collecting and storing their urine.
Blood samples will be drawn from an antecubital vein via single venepuncture and will be collected in serum and plasma EDTA tubes. All blood samples will be centrifuged at 5000 rpm for 15 min at -4°C. Serum osmolality will be measured immediately following centrifugation.
Saliva osmolality
Saliva (mOsm/kg) will be assessed by using the osmometer (Mod OSMO1, Advanced Instruments, Canada). For saliva sample collection, subjects then will provide unstimulated saliva by sitting quietly for 2min, allowing saliva to passively accumulate in the mouth. Then, participants will hold a salivette and remove its stopper. They will remove the swab from sallivete by tipping the container, so the swab falls directly into the mouth. To collect saliva, they will roll the swab in their mouth until they feel that they can no longer prevent their selves from swallowing the saliva produced. They will be instructed to not touch the swab with fingers during this process.
Thirst and mouth dryness
visual analogue rating scales of thirst and mouth dryness will be obtained. Participants will answer two questions by placing a mark on a 10 cm line according to their subjective analyses. The ends of the thirst line represent "Not at all thirsty" and "I'm very thirsty" and the question is "How thirsty do you feel now?". For mouth dryness the question is "How dry does your mouth feel now?" and the participants will mark the line between these ends representing "Not at all dry" and "Very dry".
Serum arginine vasopressin
Blood samples will be collected to assess serum AVP through ELISA.
Serum sodium concentration
Blood samples will be collected to assess serum sodium concentration by flame spectrometry
Total body water
Total body water (TBW) will be measured by deuterium dilution using a Hydra stable isotope ratio mass spectrometer (PDZ, Europa Scientific, UK). After a 12h fast, the first urine sample will be collected. Each participant will take an oral dose of 0.1g of 99.9% 2H2O per kg of body weight (Sigma-Aldrich;St. Louis, MO). After a 4h equilibration period, during which no food or beverage will be consumed, a urine sample will be collected as well as a urine sample at 5h. Urine and diluted dose samples will be prepared for 1H/2H analysis.
Extracellular water
Through the dilution of sodium bromide (NaBr), it will be possible the determination of ECW. After collection of a saliva sample, each participant will be asked to drink 0.030g of 99.0% NaBr (Sigma-Aldrich; St. Louis, MO) per kg of body weight, diluted in 50 mL of distilled deionized water. After a 3h equilibration period, during which no food or beverage will be consumed, a saliva sample will be collected. Saliva samples will be collected into salivettes. Then, the samples will be centrifuged and frozen for posterior analyses.
Intracellular water
Intracellular water (ICW) will be determined as the difference between TBW and ECW using the dilution techniques (ICW=TBW-ECW).
Phase angle
Whole body and segmental BI will be applied using the AKERN BIA 101/BIVA PRO, a phase-sensitive a single frequency bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) device that measures PhA.
Impedance
Whole body and segmental BI will be applied using the AKERN BIA 101/BIVA PRO, a phase-sensitive a single frequency bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) device that measures impedance (Z)
Resistance
Whole body and segmental BI will be applied using the AKERN BIA 101/BIVA PRO, a phase-sensitive a single frequency bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) device that measures PhA and impedance (Z), and then calculates resistance.
Reactance
Whole body and segmental BI will be applied using the AKERN BIA 101/BIVA PRO, a phase-sensitive a single frequency bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) device that measures PhA and impedance (Z), and then calculates reactance.
Classic Bioimpedance Vector Analysis (BIVA)
Classic BIVA will be performed, i.e., normalizing R and Xc parameters for stature (H) in meters. The length of the vector will be calculated as the hypotenuses of individual impedance values. The PhA will be calculated as the arc-tangent of Xc/R × 180°/π. Prior to each test, the analyser will be checked for calibration.
Fat mass
Fat mass (FM), a molecular component, is calculated from mathematical models, a reference 4-compartment model, as described below:
FM (kg) = 2.748×BV - 0.699×TBW + 1.129×Mo - 2.051×BW, where BV is body volume (L) obtained by air displacement plethysmography (ADP, described below), TBW (kg) through dilution techniques (as described before), Mo is bone mineral (kg) obtained by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA, described below), and BW is body weight (kg). Accordingly, FFM is calculated as FM minus BW. In this model soft minerals (Ms), a small molecular component, are calculated as 0.00129*TBW.
Body volume
Body volume will be assessed by ADP (BOD PODs, Life Measurement Inc., Concord, CA, USA). Each subject will wear a swimsuit and their body mass will be measured to the nearest 100g by an electronic scale connected to the plethysmograph computer. Body volume will be computed based on the initial BV corrected for thoracic gas volume and a surface area artifact computed automatically. The measured thoracic gas volume will be obtained in all subjects.
Bone mineral content
Bone mineral content will be estimated using DXA (Hologic Explorer-W, MA, USA). The attenuation of X-rays pulse between 70 and 140kV synchronously with the line frequency for each pixel of the scanned image. The lab technician will execute the analyses according to the operator's manual using the standard analysis protocol and considering the recommendations present in the literature. Considering that bone mineral content (BMC) represents ashed bone, BMC will be converted to total-body Mo by multiplying it by 1.0436.
Fat free mass
After the determination of FM, FFM is obtained by subtracting FM from body mass. As the main molecular components are determined, protein is also subtracted from FFM (Protein= FFM-TBW-Mo-Ms). The density of the FFM (FFMd) is also calculated as:
FFMd = 1/((TBW/0.9937)+(Mo/2.982)+(Ms/3.317)+(Protein/1.34)) Thus, hydration of the FFM can be calculated as TBW/FFM. This value will be used as a reference to test the validity of the algorithm proposed in the AKERN BIA device.
Profile state of mood
The profile of mood states (POMS) questionnaire will be applied to assess distinct mood states. This questionnaire will be applied at baseline, before and after the dehydration protocols and after the 4-day intervention. The POMS is a 5-point self-administered scale that assesses various mood states.