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Breathing and Decision-Making (ProlEx-MRI)

Primary Purpose

Quality of Life, Behavior, Stress, Psychological

Status
Recruiting
Phase
Not Applicable
Locations
Germany
Study Type
Interventional
Intervention
Breathing with prolonged exhalation (ProlEx) during risky decision-making
Normal breathing (Eupnea/Control) during risky decision-making
Sponsored by
German Institute of Human Nutrition
About
Eligibility
Locations
Arms
Outcomes
Full info

About this trial

This is an interventional basic science trial for Quality of Life focused on measuring Breathing, Relaxation, Decision-Making, Stress Management

Eligibility Criteria

18 Years - 40 Years (Adult)All SexesAccepts Healthy Volunteers

Inclusion Criteria: Healthy men and women Normal vision (no glasses or contact lenses required) Exclusion Criteria: Smokers Extreme athletes Extensive lung function (e.g., professional musician, abnoedivers) Excessive stress Former or current physical or psychological illness (e.g., lung diseases) Current or previous medication within 2 weeks before the appointment Left-handedness Claustrophobia Tinnitus Non-removable metal parts or implants inside or on the body (e.g., hip replacements, copper IUD) Non-removable ferromagnetic objects inside or on the body (e.g., joint replacements) Non-removable magnetic objects inside or on the body (e.g., artificial eye) Large tattoos Young (>18 years) or old (>40 years) subjects Over- or underweight (BMI <18 or >25 kg/m2) Pregnancy Abnormal circadian rhythm (e.g., during shift work) Excessive alcohol consumption Illegal drug consumption within 2 weeks before the appointment Missing consent to participate Missing consent to receive incidental findings (MRI)

Sites / Locations

  • German Institute of Human NutritionRecruiting

Arms of the Study

Arm 1

Arm 2

Arm Type

Experimental

Experimental

Arm Label

Effect of ProlEx breathing on decision-making if applied before the Eupnea condition

Effect of Eupnea breathing on decision-making if applied before the ProlEx condition

Arm Description

Intervention (behavioral): Block 1: ProlEx, Block 2: Eupnea/Control during decision-making

Intervention (behavioral): Block 1: Eupnea/Control, Block 2: ProlEx during decision-making

Outcomes

Primary Outcome Measures

Behavior: Risk propensity
Risk propensity, i.e., the willingness to accept or reject a risky mixed gamble in an adapted paradigm based on Tom et al. (2007); assessed using response options "strongly accept", "weakly accept", "weakly reject", "strongly reject"
Brain: blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) signal changes
BOLD signal changes on a whole-brain level and in predefined regions of interest assessed using fMRI
Body: Heart-rate variability
Low-frequency and high-frequency heart rate variability (LF-HRV and HF-HRV, respectively); assessed using an electrocardiogram (ECG) and pulse oximetry
Body: Pupil
Miosis/mydriasis, i.e., changes in pupil dilation; assessed with eye tracking
Body: Electrodermal activity
Tonic electrodermal activity (EDA); assessed using a galvanic skin response module

Secondary Outcome Measures

Questionnaire assessing depression: "Beck Depression Inventory" (BDI)
The depression scale (self-report) will be assessed using Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) (Hautzinger et al., 1994). The questionnaire consists of 21 questions, with each item corresponding to a value ranging from 0 to 3. Higher total scores indicate more severe depressive symptoms. A total score of 0-13 is considered minimal, 14-19 mild, 20-28 moderate, and 29-63 severe.
Questionnaire assessing personality traits: "Big Five Inventory" (BFI-10)
Personality traits (self-report) will be assessed using the Big Five Inventory (BFI-10) (Rammstedt et al., 2013). The BFI-10 is a 10-item scale measuring the Big Five personality traits Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability, and Openness. Ten items are answered on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree". Scoring of the BFI-10 scales (R = item is reverse-scored): Extraversion: 1R, 5; Agreeableness: 2, 7R; Conscientiousness: 3R, 8; Neuroticism: 4R, 9; Openness to Experience: 5R, 10. Individuals who score high on the BFI-10 tend to exhibit certain qualities associated with each of the personality traits. The score can range from a minimum of 2 to a maximum of 10 points for each of the personality traits.
Questionnaire assessing impulsivity: "Barratt Impulsivity Scale" (BIS-15)
Impulsivity (self-report) will be assessed using the Barratt Impulsivity Scale (BIS-15) (Meule et al., 2011). This scale is a questionnaire consisting of 15 items scored from 1 to 4 with 1 = rarely / never, 2 = sometimes, 3 = often, and 4 = almost always / always. Scores range from 15 to 60, with higher scores reflecting greater impulsiveness.
Questionnaire assessing approach-avoidance behavior: "Behavioral Inhibition System/Behavioral Approach System" (BIS/BAS)
Approach-avoidance behavior (self-report) will be assessed using the Behavioral Inhibition System/Behavioral Approach System (BIS/BAS) (Strobel et al., 2001). The BIS/BAS scale is a 24-item self-report questionnaire designed to measure two motivational systems. The behavioral inhibition system (BIS), which corresponds to the motivation to avoid aversive outcomes, has 7 items with a total score ranging from 7 to 28 points. The behavioral activation system (BAS), which corresponds to the motivation to approach goal-oriented outcomes,has 13 items with a total score ranging from 13 to 52 points. Four items act as filler items. Participants respond to each item using a 4-point Likert scale: 1 (very true for me), 2 (somewhat true for me), 3 (somewhat false for me), and 4 (very false for me). Total scores are calculated for BIS and BAS, with a higher score corresponding to higher behavioral inhibition and activation, respectively.
Questionnaire assessing self-control: "Brief Self-Control Scale" (BSCS)
Self-control (self-report) will be assessed using the Brief Self-Control Scale (BSCS) (Sproesser et al., 2011). The BSCS measures trait self-control via items with a 5-point Likert scale, where 1 refers to 'not at all' and 5 to 'extremely'. Scores range from 13 to 65. Higher scores represent higher levels of self-control.
Questionnaire assessing interoceptive awareness: "Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness" (MAIA-2)
Interoceptive Awareness (self-report) will be assessed using the "Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness" (MAIA-2) (Mehling et al., 2018). The MAIA assesses multidimensional aspects of self-reported interoception and includes 37 items using a six-point Likert scale (0 never, 5 always). Higher scores equate to higher awareness of bodily sensation. The results from the MAIA-2 focus on the individual scale scores (Mehling et al., 2012).
Questionnaire assessing affect: "Positive and Negative Affect Scale" (PANAS)
Affect (self-report) will be assessed using the Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS) (Janke et al., 2014). The PANAS is a self-report questionnaire that consists of two 10-item scales to measure both positive and negative affect. Each item is rated on a 5-point scale of 1 (not at all) to 5 (very much). Positive Affect Score: the scores on items 1, 3, 5, 9, 10, 12, 14, 16, 17, and 19. Scores can range from 10 - 50, with higher scores representing higher levels of positive affect. Negative Affect Score: Add the scores on items 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 11, 13, 15, 18, and 20. Scores can range from 10 to 50, with lower scores representing lower levels of negative affect.
Questionnaire assessing stress: "Perceived Stress Questionnaire" (PSQ)
Stress (self-report) will be assessed using the Perceived Stress Questionnaire (PSQ) (Fliege et al., 2001). The PSQ a self-report questionnaire that consists of 20 items. Each item is rated on a 4-point Likert scale of 1 to 4. Total scores range from 20 to 80. Higher scores indicate greater levels of stress.
Questionnaire assessing self-efficacy: "General Self-Efficacy Scale" (GSE)
Self-efficacy (self-report) will be assessed using the General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE) (Schwarzer et al., 1997). The GSE is a 10-item scale with a score for each item ranging from 1 to 4. Total scores range from 10 to 40. Higher scores indicate higher self-reported self-efficacy.
Questionnaire assessing anxiety: "State-Trait Anxiety Inventory" (STAI-T)
Trait anxiety (self-report) will be assessed using the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI-T) (Grimm et al., 2009). The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI-T) is a 20-item scale with a score for each question ranging from 0 to 3. Total scores range from 0 to 60. Higher scores indicate higher levels of anxiety.
Questionnaire assessing mentall well-being: "Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-Being Scale" (SWEMWBS)
Mental well-being (self-report) will be assessed using the Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-Being Scale, short version (SWEMWBS) (Lang et al., 2017). The WEMWBS is scored by summing the responses to each of the 14 items on a 1 to 5 Likert scale. Total scores can range from a minimum of 14 to a maximum of 70 points. Higher scores are associated with higher levels of mental well-being.
Body: Eye gaze
Eye fixation points analysed using eye-tracking data

Full Information

First Posted
June 21, 2023
Last Updated
October 4, 2023
Sponsor
German Institute of Human Nutrition
Collaborators
Charite University, Berlin, Germany, German Center for Diabetes Research, Freie Universität Berlin
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1. Study Identification

Unique Protocol Identification Number
NCT05936684
Brief Title
Breathing and Decision-Making
Acronym
ProlEx-MRI
Official Title
Breathing and Decision-Making: An fMRI Study Investigating the Link Between Slow Breathing and Risky Decision-Making
Study Type
Interventional

2. Study Status

Record Verification Date
October 2023
Overall Recruitment Status
Recruiting
Study Start Date
July 4, 2023 (Actual)
Primary Completion Date
June 2024 (Anticipated)
Study Completion Date
June 2024 (Anticipated)

3. Sponsor/Collaborators

Responsible Party, by Official Title
Principal Investigator
Name of the Sponsor
German Institute of Human Nutrition
Collaborators
Charite University, Berlin, Germany, German Center for Diabetes Research, Freie Universität Berlin

4. Oversight

Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated Drug Product
No
Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated Device Product
No
Data Monitoring Committee
No

5. Study Description

Brief Summary
The study aims to investigate how slow breathing with prolonged exhalation (i.e., ProlEx breathing) modulates decision-making under risk in healthy participants. To do this, a short-term breathing intervention is combined with a decision-making paradigm while neural, physiological, and behavioral data are recorded.
Detailed Description
This interventional study investigates the modulatory effect of slow breathing with prolonged exhalation (i.e., ProlEx breathing) on decision-making under risk. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), the researchers seek to identify brain regions influenced by the breathing intervention during the decision-making task. Sixty healthy participants will be invited to perform ProlEx breathing during a risky decision-making task. After initial preparations, each individual's spontaneous breathing rhythm will be determined (i.e., Eupnea, control condition). This step is to i) ensure a natural breathing pace for each participant and ii) incorporate cue-assisted breathing into the control condition to allow comparability across conditions. To further investigate the effect of ProlEx on sympathovagal tone, physiological measures of respiration, electrocardiogram, pulse, electrodermal activity, and pupil are acquired. During scanning, the participant will perform a decision-making task based on the paradigm by Tom et al. (2007). The breathing intervention is applied simultaneously with continuous cue-assisted breathing for both conditions (Eupnea, ProlEx) throughout the duration of the task. The experiment follows a block design with counterbalanced orders to control for confounding effects. After completion of the scans, the participants fill out additional questionnaires.

6. Conditions and Keywords

Primary Disease or Condition Being Studied in the Trial, or the Focus of the Study
Quality of Life, Behavior, Stress, Psychological
Keywords
Breathing, Relaxation, Decision-Making, Stress Management

7. Study Design

Primary Purpose
Basic Science
Study Phase
Not Applicable
Interventional Study Model
Crossover Assignment
Masking
None (Open Label)
Allocation
Randomized
Enrollment
60 (Anticipated)

8. Arms, Groups, and Interventions

Arm Title
Effect of ProlEx breathing on decision-making if applied before the Eupnea condition
Arm Type
Experimental
Arm Description
Intervention (behavioral): Block 1: ProlEx, Block 2: Eupnea/Control during decision-making
Arm Title
Effect of Eupnea breathing on decision-making if applied before the ProlEx condition
Arm Type
Experimental
Arm Description
Intervention (behavioral): Block 1: Eupnea/Control, Block 2: ProlEx during decision-making
Intervention Type
Behavioral
Intervention Name(s)
Breathing with prolonged exhalation (ProlEx) during risky decision-making
Other Intervention Name(s)
ProlEx (decision-making), Slow Breathing
Intervention Description
20 min divided in 3 blocks of slow, 0.1 Hz breathing (6 cycles per minute) with an inhalation-to-exhalation ratio of 2:8. Cue-assisted breathing (same across participants) and performance of a risky decision-making task (Tom et al., 2007) in the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanner with simultaneous acquisition of physiological and pupil data.
Intervention Type
Behavioral
Intervention Name(s)
Normal breathing (Eupnea/Control) during risky decision-making
Other Intervention Name(s)
Eupnea (decision-making), Normal Breathing
Intervention Description
20 min divided in 3 blocks of normal breathing (expected range: 0.16-0.33 Hz, i.e., 10-20 per min), Cue-assisted breathing (individually adapted) and performance of a risky decision-making task (Tom et al., 2007) in the MRI scanner with simultaneous acquisition of physiological and pupil data.
Primary Outcome Measure Information:
Title
Behavior: Risk propensity
Description
Risk propensity, i.e., the willingness to accept or reject a risky mixed gamble in an adapted paradigm based on Tom et al. (2007); assessed using response options "strongly accept", "weakly accept", "weakly reject", "strongly reject"
Time Frame
1 year
Title
Brain: blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) signal changes
Description
BOLD signal changes on a whole-brain level and in predefined regions of interest assessed using fMRI
Time Frame
1 year
Title
Body: Heart-rate variability
Description
Low-frequency and high-frequency heart rate variability (LF-HRV and HF-HRV, respectively); assessed using an electrocardiogram (ECG) and pulse oximetry
Time Frame
1 year
Title
Body: Pupil
Description
Miosis/mydriasis, i.e., changes in pupil dilation; assessed with eye tracking
Time Frame
1 year
Title
Body: Electrodermal activity
Description
Tonic electrodermal activity (EDA); assessed using a galvanic skin response module
Time Frame
1 year
Secondary Outcome Measure Information:
Title
Questionnaire assessing depression: "Beck Depression Inventory" (BDI)
Description
The depression scale (self-report) will be assessed using Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) (Hautzinger et al., 1994). The questionnaire consists of 21 questions, with each item corresponding to a value ranging from 0 to 3. Higher total scores indicate more severe depressive symptoms. A total score of 0-13 is considered minimal, 14-19 mild, 20-28 moderate, and 29-63 severe.
Time Frame
1 year
Title
Questionnaire assessing personality traits: "Big Five Inventory" (BFI-10)
Description
Personality traits (self-report) will be assessed using the Big Five Inventory (BFI-10) (Rammstedt et al., 2013). The BFI-10 is a 10-item scale measuring the Big Five personality traits Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability, and Openness. Ten items are answered on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree". Scoring of the BFI-10 scales (R = item is reverse-scored): Extraversion: 1R, 5; Agreeableness: 2, 7R; Conscientiousness: 3R, 8; Neuroticism: 4R, 9; Openness to Experience: 5R, 10. Individuals who score high on the BFI-10 tend to exhibit certain qualities associated with each of the personality traits. The score can range from a minimum of 2 to a maximum of 10 points for each of the personality traits.
Time Frame
1 year
Title
Questionnaire assessing impulsivity: "Barratt Impulsivity Scale" (BIS-15)
Description
Impulsivity (self-report) will be assessed using the Barratt Impulsivity Scale (BIS-15) (Meule et al., 2011). This scale is a questionnaire consisting of 15 items scored from 1 to 4 with 1 = rarely / never, 2 = sometimes, 3 = often, and 4 = almost always / always. Scores range from 15 to 60, with higher scores reflecting greater impulsiveness.
Time Frame
1 year
Title
Questionnaire assessing approach-avoidance behavior: "Behavioral Inhibition System/Behavioral Approach System" (BIS/BAS)
Description
Approach-avoidance behavior (self-report) will be assessed using the Behavioral Inhibition System/Behavioral Approach System (BIS/BAS) (Strobel et al., 2001). The BIS/BAS scale is a 24-item self-report questionnaire designed to measure two motivational systems. The behavioral inhibition system (BIS), which corresponds to the motivation to avoid aversive outcomes, has 7 items with a total score ranging from 7 to 28 points. The behavioral activation system (BAS), which corresponds to the motivation to approach goal-oriented outcomes,has 13 items with a total score ranging from 13 to 52 points. Four items act as filler items. Participants respond to each item using a 4-point Likert scale: 1 (very true for me), 2 (somewhat true for me), 3 (somewhat false for me), and 4 (very false for me). Total scores are calculated for BIS and BAS, with a higher score corresponding to higher behavioral inhibition and activation, respectively.
Time Frame
1 year
Title
Questionnaire assessing self-control: "Brief Self-Control Scale" (BSCS)
Description
Self-control (self-report) will be assessed using the Brief Self-Control Scale (BSCS) (Sproesser et al., 2011). The BSCS measures trait self-control via items with a 5-point Likert scale, where 1 refers to 'not at all' and 5 to 'extremely'. Scores range from 13 to 65. Higher scores represent higher levels of self-control.
Time Frame
1 year
Title
Questionnaire assessing interoceptive awareness: "Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness" (MAIA-2)
Description
Interoceptive Awareness (self-report) will be assessed using the "Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness" (MAIA-2) (Mehling et al., 2018). The MAIA assesses multidimensional aspects of self-reported interoception and includes 37 items using a six-point Likert scale (0 never, 5 always). Higher scores equate to higher awareness of bodily sensation. The results from the MAIA-2 focus on the individual scale scores (Mehling et al., 2012).
Time Frame
1 year
Title
Questionnaire assessing affect: "Positive and Negative Affect Scale" (PANAS)
Description
Affect (self-report) will be assessed using the Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS) (Janke et al., 2014). The PANAS is a self-report questionnaire that consists of two 10-item scales to measure both positive and negative affect. Each item is rated on a 5-point scale of 1 (not at all) to 5 (very much). Positive Affect Score: the scores on items 1, 3, 5, 9, 10, 12, 14, 16, 17, and 19. Scores can range from 10 - 50, with higher scores representing higher levels of positive affect. Negative Affect Score: Add the scores on items 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 11, 13, 15, 18, and 20. Scores can range from 10 to 50, with lower scores representing lower levels of negative affect.
Time Frame
1 year
Title
Questionnaire assessing stress: "Perceived Stress Questionnaire" (PSQ)
Description
Stress (self-report) will be assessed using the Perceived Stress Questionnaire (PSQ) (Fliege et al., 2001). The PSQ a self-report questionnaire that consists of 20 items. Each item is rated on a 4-point Likert scale of 1 to 4. Total scores range from 20 to 80. Higher scores indicate greater levels of stress.
Time Frame
1 year
Title
Questionnaire assessing self-efficacy: "General Self-Efficacy Scale" (GSE)
Description
Self-efficacy (self-report) will be assessed using the General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE) (Schwarzer et al., 1997). The GSE is a 10-item scale with a score for each item ranging from 1 to 4. Total scores range from 10 to 40. Higher scores indicate higher self-reported self-efficacy.
Time Frame
1 year
Title
Questionnaire assessing anxiety: "State-Trait Anxiety Inventory" (STAI-T)
Description
Trait anxiety (self-report) will be assessed using the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI-T) (Grimm et al., 2009). The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI-T) is a 20-item scale with a score for each question ranging from 0 to 3. Total scores range from 0 to 60. Higher scores indicate higher levels of anxiety.
Time Frame
1 year
Title
Questionnaire assessing mentall well-being: "Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-Being Scale" (SWEMWBS)
Description
Mental well-being (self-report) will be assessed using the Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-Being Scale, short version (SWEMWBS) (Lang et al., 2017). The WEMWBS is scored by summing the responses to each of the 14 items on a 1 to 5 Likert scale. Total scores can range from a minimum of 14 to a maximum of 70 points. Higher scores are associated with higher levels of mental well-being.
Time Frame
1 year
Title
Body: Eye gaze
Description
Eye fixation points analysed using eye-tracking data
Time Frame
1 year

10. Eligibility

Sex
All
Minimum Age & Unit of Time
18 Years
Maximum Age & Unit of Time
40 Years
Accepts Healthy Volunteers
Accepts Healthy Volunteers
Eligibility Criteria
Inclusion Criteria: Healthy men and women Normal vision (no glasses or contact lenses required) Exclusion Criteria: Smokers Extreme athletes Extensive lung function (e.g., professional musician, abnoedivers) Excessive stress Former or current physical or psychological illness (e.g., lung diseases) Current or previous medication within 2 weeks before the appointment Left-handedness Claustrophobia Tinnitus Non-removable metal parts or implants inside or on the body (e.g., hip replacements, copper IUD) Non-removable ferromagnetic objects inside or on the body (e.g., joint replacements) Non-removable magnetic objects inside or on the body (e.g., artificial eye) Large tattoos Young (>18 years) or old (>40 years) subjects Over- or underweight (BMI <18 or >25 kg/m2) Pregnancy Abnormal circadian rhythm (e.g., during shift work) Excessive alcohol consumption Illegal drug consumption within 2 weeks before the appointment Missing consent to participate Missing consent to receive incidental findings (MRI)
Central Contact Person:
First Name & Middle Initial & Last Name or Official Title & Degree
Bianca Weigel
Phone
+4933200882735
Email
DNN-Studie@dife.de
Overall Study Officials:
First Name & Middle Initial & Last Name & Degree
Soyoung Q Park, Prof. Dr.
Organizational Affiliation
German Institute of Human Nutrition
Official's Role
Principal Investigator
Facility Information:
Facility Name
German Institute of Human Nutrition
City
Nuthetal
Country
Germany
Individual Site Status
Recruiting
Facility Contact:
First Name & Middle Initial & Last Name & Degree
Bianca Weigel
Phone
+4933200882735
Email
DNN-Studie@dife.de
First Name & Middle Initial & Last Name & Degree
Wenhao Huang

12. IPD Sharing Statement

Citations:
Citation
Fliege, H., Rose, M., Arck, P., Levenstein, S. & Klapp, B. F. (2001). Validierung des Perceived Stress Questionnaire (PSQ) an einer deutschen Stichprobe. Diagnostica, 47, 142-152.
Results Reference
background
Citation
Grimm, J. State-trait-anxiety inventory nach Spielberger. Deutsche Lang- und Kurzversion. Methodenforum der Universität Wien: MF-Working Paper (2009).
Results Reference
background
PubMed Identifier
1770969
Citation
Hautzinger M. [The Beck Depression Inventory in clinical practice]. Nervenarzt. 1991 Nov;62(11):689-96. German.
Results Reference
background
Citation
Janke, S., & Glöckner-Rist, A. (2014). "Deutsche Version der Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS)" in Zusammenstellung sozialwissenschaftlicher Items und Skalen, GESIS (Mannheim, Germany). doi.org/10.6102/zis146
Results Reference
background
Citation
Lang, G. & Bachinger, A. Validation of the German Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-Being Scale (WEMWBS) in a community-based sample of adults in Austria: a bi-factor modelling approach. J Public Health 25, 135-146 (2017)
Results Reference
background
PubMed Identifier
30513087
Citation
Mehling WE, Acree M, Stewart A, Silas J, Jones A. The Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness, Version 2 (MAIA-2). PLoS One. 2018 Dec 4;13(12):e0208034. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0208034. eCollection 2018.
Results Reference
background
Citation
Meule, A., Vögele, C. & Kübler, A. Psychometrische Evaluation der deutschen Barratt Impulsiveness Scale - Kurzversion (BIS-15). Diagnostica 57, 126-133 (2011).
Results Reference
background
Citation
Rammstedt, B., Kemper, C.J., Klein, M.C., Beierlein, C., & Kovaleva, A. (2013). Eine kurze Skala zur Mes-sung der fünf Dimensionen der Persönlichkeit. Methoden, Daten, Analysen, 7(2), S. 233-249
Results Reference
background
Citation
Schwarzer, R., Bäßler, J., Kwiatek, P., Schröder, K., & Zhang, J. X. (1997). The assessment of optimistic self-beliefs: comparison of the German, Spanish, and Chinese versions of the general self-efficacy scale. Applied Psychology, 46(1), 69-88.
Results Reference
background
PubMed Identifier
17255512
Citation
Tom SM, Fox CR, Trepel C, Poldrack RA. The neural basis of loss aversion in decision-making under risk. Science. 2007 Jan 26;315(5811):515-8. doi: 10.1126/science.1134239.
Results Reference
background

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Breathing and Decision-Making

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