Effect of Low-load Resistance Training vs. High-intensity Interval Training on Local Muscle Endurance (LLSIT)

Effect of Low-load Resistance Training vs. High-intensity Interval Training on Local Muscle Endurance

The Effect of Low-Load Resistance Training Versus High-intensity/Sprint Interval Training on Local Muscle Endurance, Mitochondrial Content, Mitochondrial Function, and Muscle Capillarization

Local muscle endurance (LME) is the ability of a muscle(s) to resist fatigue and is needed for daily activities of life such as climbing stairs, lifting/moving objects, and in sport contexts like rock climbing, mixed martial arts, cross-fit, kayaking and canoeing. Therefore, the investigators want learn how to improve LME and understand what in human bodies changes during exercise training to cause these changes. The investigators know that lifting weights improves muscle strength which is believed to improve LME. Specifically lifting less heavy weights (LLRET) for more repetitions leads to greater gains in LME opposed to heavier weights for fewer repetitions. Therefore, lifting less heavy weights likely causes greater changes in our muscles than lifting heavier weights that cause improvements in LME. Aerobic exercise preformed at high intensities in an interval format (HIIT) may also help improve LME by increasing our muscle's ability to produce energy during exercise. Therefore, the investigators want to see which of LLRET or HIIT leads to greater improvements in LME.

Local muscle endurance (LME) is the ability of a given muscle/muscle group to resist fatigue when performing resistance exercise at a submaximal resistance/load. LME is vital for daily activities of life such as climbing stairs, lifting/moving objects, and in sport contexts such as, rock climbing, mixed martial arts, cross-fit, kayaking and canoeing. Therefore, understanding the mechanisms that underpin LME are of significant interest. Mitochondrial content, mitochondrial function and muscle capillarization have been purported as potential physiological factors that may influence LME. However, currently these mechanisms are speculative in nature and further research is required to draw more conclusive evidence. Furthermore, tolerance to exercise induced discomfort is another a potential mechanism of LME, whereby individuals who train under conditions that induce significant feelings of discomfort may possess a greater capacity to push through discomfort induced via LME tests. However, distinguishing between potential physiological and psychological/neural adaptations regarding LME improvements would require further investigations with nuanced methodology. Low load resistance exercise training (LLRET) has been definitively shown to improve local muscle endurance via numerous investigations. Resistance exercise training (RET), LLRET inclusive improves muscle strength which leads to greater repetition reserve capacity at lower loads. Although, Improvements in muscle strength are not specific to LLRET, yet, LLRET does yield greater gains in LME opposed to high load RET (HLRET). Therefore, LLRET likely induces vital physiological adaptations to greater extent than HLRET that drive improvements in LME such mitochondrial function, mitochondrial content and muscle capillarization. HIIT/Sprint interval training (SIT) induce significant discomfort and improve mitochondrial content/function and muscle capillarization, therefore, HIIT/SIT may be effective interventions to improve muscle endurance. It is evident that RET of varying loads can improve strength, hypertrophy and LME and that endurance exercise training (EET) improves, VO2 Max, mitochondrial content, mitochondrial function and muscle capillarization. However, minimal research has investigated the impact of RET on single leg maximal aerobic capacity, mitochondrial content, mitochondrial function and muscle capillarization and of EET on muscle strength and muscle hypertrophy and muscle endurance. Furthermore, the findings that do exist from this body of literature are conflicted, with some suggesting RET can improve EET associated adaptions while others suggest no benefit or even decrements in aerobic condition are induced via RET. A similar pattern emerges surrounding the impact of HIIT and SIT on muscle hypertrophy, strength and local muscle endurance, whereby SIT and HIIT may induce gains in hypertrophy, strength and local muscle endurance or may yield no benefit at all. Interestingly, SIT and LLRET fall the closest to one another on the resistance exercise-endurance exercise (RE-EE) continuum suggesting that in theory there would be the largest "crossover" effect from these stimuli. Whereby SIT would elicit the greatest improvements in muscle strength and hypertrophy relative to other EET and LLRET would induce greater enhancement of EET associated adaptations relative to other RET. Although limited research has investigated this potential "crossover effect", evidence suggests that both stimuli may improve single leg maximal aerobic capacity ,mitochondrial content, mitochondrial function, muscle capillarization, muscle strength, muscle hypertrophy and local muscle endurance. However, results are in-consistent between investigations and findings are difficult to compare due to discrepancies in durations of studies, training architecture and intensity of sessions. Furthermore, to date no previous research has directly compared the effect of SIT/HIIT and LLRET on the aforementioned adaptations within the same study, leaving this topic up to speculation. The present study attempts to address this gap in the literature.

Muscle Strength, Local Muscle Endurance, Muscle Hypertrophy, Mitochondrial Content, Mitochondrial Function, Muscle Capillarization, High-Intensity Interval Training, Sprint Interval Training, Low Load Resistance Training, Resistance Training, Interval Training, Knee Extension, Muscle Endurance

Within subject Design: Each participant will have one leg randomly assigned to each training condition. Training for each leg will occur over the same 12 week training period.

Since the interventions are exercise interventions it is not possible to blind either the participants or Investigator to which condition each participants leg receives. However, the legs will be randomly assigned to their conditions (neither the participant nor the Investigator will determine this.)

LLRET - 12 weeks (2-3 times/week) 3 sets of Knee extension exercise (single leg) done at 30%1- RM. Performed to failure with 3 minutes of rest between sets, weight lifted will be adjusted throughout the study to keep repetitions completed in a 20-30 repetition range.

SIT/HIIT- 12 weeks (2-3 times/week), mix of SIT and HIIT (8-15 sets/session). SIT -30 second Super Maximal "Wingate style intervals" performed on a Kicking ergometer (single leg) with 4 minutes rest provided between sets (number of interval ranges from 4-5), load determined from DEXA leg lean mass and will not be altered throughout training. HIIT - 1-minute Submaximal efforts (90% single leg kicking ergometer VO2Peak Wattage) performed on a kicking ergometer (single leg) with 1 minute rest provided between sets (number of interval ranges from 8-10), if all sets completed wattage will be increased by 5watts for the next training session.

Performing repeated submaximal/maximal 30second-60 seconds (1-3 minute rest between) aerobic intervals on a Kicking ergometer (modified bike that allows cycling to be performed with one leg using a kicking motion).

Change in repetitions completed for 30% pre-training 1- Repetition maximum (Single leg Knee extension)

The number of single leg knee extension repetitions that one can complete at 30% of their pre-training 1-RM

Change in Repetitions completed for 30% pre-training 1- Repetition maximum (Single leg Knee extension)

The number of single leg knee extension repetitions that one can complete at 30% of their pre-training 1-RM

Mean number of capillaries touching each muscle fibre (normalized to the fibre perimeter). Assessed using imaging of muscle samples gathered via muscle biopsies.

Mean CSA of Type I and II muscle fibers using imaging of muscle samples gathered via muscle biopsies.

Mean number of capillaries touching each muscle fibre. Assessed using imaging of muscle samples gathered via muscle biopsies.

Inclusion Criteria: Able to understand and communicate in English 19-30 years of age All "No" answers on the CSEP Get Active questionnaire or doctors' approval to participate Untrained participants: no structured resistance and/or endurance training over the past 12-months (i.e., >2 hours per week of structured/periodized training) Exclusion Criteria: BMI lower than 18 or greater than 30 Current use of cigarettes or other nicotine devices Any major uncontrolled cardiovascular, muscular, metabolic, and/or neurological disorders Any medical condition impacting the ability to participate in maximal exercise Type one or type two diabetes Diagnosis of cancer or undergoing cancer treatment in the past 12 months Taking blood-thinning medication or the presence of a bleeding disorder Drug therapy with any drugs that alter skeletal muscle metabolism (i.e., Metformin, Benzodiazepines)

Individual participant data will be held by Lucas Wiens and will be released upon request to other researchers.

Data will be made available after publication/completion of the project. Data will remain available for at least 10 years following the completion of this project.

Data will only be released to researchers who have valid association with an institution or private laboratory.

Doherty TJ. The influence of aging and sex on skeletal muscle mass and strength. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2001 Nov;4(6):503-8. doi: 10.1097/00075197-200111000-00007.

Maughan RJ, Harmon M, Leiper JB, Sale D, Delman A. Endurance capacity of untrained males and females in isometric and dynamic muscular contractions. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1986;55(4):395-400. doi: 10.1007/BF00422739.

Vaccari F, Passaro A, D'Amuri A, Sanz JM, Di Vece F, Capatti E, Magnesa B, Comelli M, Mavelli I, Grassi B, Fiori F, Bravo G, Avancini A, Parpinel M, Lazzer S. Effects of 3-month high-intensity interval training vs. moderate endurance training and 4-month follow-up on fat metabolism, cardiorespiratory function and mitochondrial respiration in obese adults. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2020 Aug;120(8):1787-1803. doi: 10.1007/s00421-020-04409-2. Epub 2020 Jun 8.

Tabata I, Nishimura K, Kouzaki M, Hirai Y, Ogita F, Miyachi M, Yamamoto K. Effects of moderate-intensity endurance and high-intensity intermittent training on anaerobic capacity and VO2max. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1996 Oct;28(10):1327-30. doi: 10.1097/00005768-199610000-00018.

Sabag A, Way KL, Keating SE, Sultana RN, O'Connor HT, Baker MK, Chuter VH, George J, Johnson NA. Exercise and ectopic fat in type 2 diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetes Metab. 2017 Jun;43(3):195-210. doi: 10.1016/j.diabet.2016.12.006. Epub 2017 Feb 2.

Steele J, Butler A, Comerford Z, Dyer J, Lloyd N, Ward J, Fisher J, Gentil P, Scott C, Ozaki H. Similar acute physiological responses from effort and duration matched leg press and recumbent cycling tasks. PeerJ. 2018 Feb 28;6:e4403. doi: 10.7717/peerj.4403. eCollection 2018.

Sokmen B, Witchey RL, Adams GM, Beam WC. Effects of Sprint Interval Training With Active Recovery vs. Endurance Training on Aerobic and Anaerobic Power, Muscular Strength, and Sprint Ability. J Strength Cond Res. 2018 Mar;32(3):624-631. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000002215.

Schoenfeld BJ, Grgic J, Van Every DW, Plotkin DL. Loading Recommendations for Muscle Strength, Hypertrophy, and Local Endurance: A Re-Examination of the Repetition Continuum. Sports (Basel). 2021 Feb 22;9(2):32. doi: 10.3390/sports9020032.

Schoenfeld BJ, Grgic J, Ogborn D, Krieger JW. Strength and Hypertrophy Adaptations Between Low- vs. High-Load Resistance Training: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. J Strength Cond Res. 2017 Dec;31(12):3508-3523. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000002200.

Robinson MM, Dasari S, Konopka AR, Johnson ML, Manjunatha S, Esponda RR, Carter RE, Lanza IR, Nair KS. Enhanced Protein Translation Underlies Improved Metabolic and Physical Adaptations to Different Exercise Training Modes in Young and Old Humans. Cell Metab. 2017 Mar 7;25(3):581-592. doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2017.02.009.

Pignanelli C, Petrick HL, Keyvani F, Heigenhauser GJF, Quadrilatero J, Holloway GP, Burr JF. Low-load resistance training to task failure with and without blood flow restriction: muscular functional and structural adaptations. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2020 Feb 1;318(2):R284-R295. doi: 10.1152/ajpregu.00243.2019. Epub 2019 Dec 11.

Pesta D, Hoppel F, Macek C, Messner H, Faulhaber M, Kobel C, Parson W, Burtscher M, Schocke M, Gnaiger E. Similar qualitative and quantitative changes of mitochondrial respiration following strength and endurance training in normoxia and hypoxia in sedentary humans. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2011 Oct;301(4):R1078-87. doi: 10.1152/ajpregu.00285.2011. Epub 2011 Jul 20.

Parry HA, Kephart WC, Mumford PW, Romero MA, Mobley CB, Zhang Y, Roberts MD, Kavazis AN. Ketogenic diet increases mitochondria volume in the liver and skeletal muscle without altering oxidative stress markers in rats. Heliyon. 2018 Nov 24;4(11):e00975. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2018.e00975. eCollection 2018 Nov.

Osawa Y, Azuma K, Tabata S, Katsukawa F, Ishida H, Oguma Y, Kawai T, Itoh H, Okuda S, Matsumoto H. Effects of 16-week high-intensity interval training using upper and lower body ergometers on aerobic fitness and morphological changes in healthy men: a preliminary study. Open Access J Sports Med. 2014 Nov 4;5:257-65. doi: 10.2147/OAJSM.S68932. eCollection 2014.

Mitchell CJ, Churchward-Venne TA, West DW, Burd NA, Breen L, Baker SK, Phillips SM. Resistance exercise load does not determine training-mediated hypertrophic gains in young men. J Appl Physiol (1985). 2012 Jul;113(1):71-7. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00307.2012. Epub 2012 Apr 19.

MacInnis MJ, Zacharewicz E, Martin BJ, Haikalis ME, Skelly LE, Tarnopolsky MA, Murphy RM, Gibala MJ. Superior mitochondrial adaptations in human skeletal muscle after interval compared to continuous single-leg cycling matched for total work. J Physiol. 2017 May 1;595(9):2955-2968. doi: 10.1113/JP272570. Epub 2016 Aug 3.

MacInnis MJ, Gibala MJ. Physiological adaptations to interval training and the role of exercise intensity. J Physiol. 2017 May 1;595(9):2915-2930. doi: 10.1113/JP273196. Epub 2016 Dec 7.

Kell RT, Bell G, Quinney A. Musculoskeletal fitness, health outcomes and quality of life. Sports Med. 2001;31(12):863-73. doi: 10.2165/00007256-200131120-00003.

Holloway TM, Morton RW, Oikawa SY, McKellar S, Baker SK, Phillips SM. Microvascular adaptations to resistance training are independent of load in resistance-trained young men. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2018 Aug 1;315(2):R267-R273. doi: 10.1152/ajpregu.00118.2018. Epub 2018 Jun 13.

Blue MNM, Smith-Ryan AE, Trexler ET, Hirsch KR. The effects of high intensity interval training on muscle size and quality in overweight and obese adults. J Sci Med Sport. 2018 Feb;21(2):207-212. doi: 10.1016/j.jsams.2017.06.001. Epub 2017 Jun 8.

Burd NA, West DW, Staples AW, Atherton PJ, Baker JM, Moore DR, Holwerda AM, Parise G, Rennie MJ, Baker SK, Phillips SM. Low-load high volume resistance exercise stimulates muscle protein synthesis more than high-load low volume resistance exercise in young men. PLoS One. 2010 Aug 9;5(8):e12033. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0012033.

Callahan MJ, Parr EB, Hawley JA, Camera DM. Can High-Intensity Interval Training Promote Skeletal Muscle Anabolism? Sports Med. 2021 Mar;51(3):405-421. doi: 10.1007/s40279-020-01397-3.

Campos GE, Luecke TJ, Wendeln HK, Toma K, Hagerman FC, Murray TF, Ragg KE, Ratamess NA, Kraemer WJ, Staron RS. Muscular adaptations in response to three different resistance-training regimens: specificity of repetition maximum training zones. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2002 Nov;88(1-2):50-60. doi: 10.1007/s00421-002-0681-6. Epub 2002 Aug 15.

Chilibeck PD, Syrotuik DG, Bell GJ. The effect of strength training on estimates of mitochondrial density and distribution throughout muscle fibres. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1999 Nov-Dec;80(6):604-9. doi: 10.1007/s004210050641.

Clark A, De La Rosa AB, DeRevere JL, Astorino TA. Effects of various interval training regimes on changes in maximal oxygen uptake, body composition, and muscular strength in sedentary women with obesity. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2019 Apr;119(4):879-888. doi: 10.1007/s00421-019-04077-x. Epub 2019 Jan 14.

Cocks M, Shaw CS, Shepherd SO, Fisher JP, Ranasinghe AM, Barker TA, Tipton KD, Wagenmakers AJ. Sprint interval and endurance training are equally effective in increasing muscle microvascular density and eNOS content in sedentary males. J Physiol. 2013 Feb 1;591(3):641-56. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.2012.239566. Epub 2012 Sep 3.

Fliss MD, Stevenson J, Mardan-Dezfouli S, Li DCW, Mitchell CJ. Higher- and lower-load resistance exercise training induce load-specific local muscle endurance changes in young women: a randomised trial. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2022 Dec 1;47(12):1143-1159. doi: 10.1139/apnm-2022-0263. Epub 2022 Aug 26.

Gahreman D, Heydari M, Boutcher Y, Freund J, Boutcher S. The Effect of Green Tea Ingestion and Interval Sprinting Exercise on the Body Composition of Overweight Males: A Randomized Trial. Nutrients. 2016 Aug 19;8(8):510. doi: 10.3390/nu8080510.

Gibala MJ, Little JP, Macdonald MJ, Hawley JA. Physiological adaptations to low-volume, high-intensity interval training in health and disease. J Physiol. 2012 Mar 1;590(5):1077-84. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.2011.224725. Epub 2012 Jan 30.

Groennebaek T, Jespersen NR, Jakobsgaard JE, Sieljacks P, Wang J, Rindom E, Musci RV, Botker HE, Hamilton KL, Miller BF, de Paoli FV, Vissing K. Skeletal Muscle Mitochondrial Protein Synthesis and Respiration Increase With Low-Load Blood Flow Restricted as Well as High-Load Resistance Training. Front Physiol. 2018 Dec 17;9:1796. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2018.01796. eCollection 2018.

Groennebaek T, Vissing K. Impact of Resistance Training on Skeletal Muscle Mitochondrial Biogenesis, Content, and Function. Front Physiol. 2017 Sep 15;8:713. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2017.00713. eCollection 2017.